"AAAAA Is for Arrested Translation"

In a post by Ruth Williams focusing on recent research results, a study conducted on the halt of protein translation found that multiple adenosine nucleotides in messenger RNA was the reason behind the interruption. The finding contradicted the idea that protein sequences were responsible. The importance behind the failure of the ribosome protein to translate the codon sequences of mRNA into amino acids lies on the fact that the mRNA and developing protein are degraded during the process.
Due to Rachel Green and her research team at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, it was found that there is a significance in the difference between mRNA sequences and associated amino acids. Bacterial ribosomes were found to halt on lysines in the presence of AAA codons as opposed to AAG codons. The research team, utilizing human cells, went on to find that reporter gene constructs with lysines encoded by AAA sequences had far less protein production then lysines encoded by AAG, as well as arginines encoded by AGG and CGA codons.
Two outcomes from this research were particularly important- bioinformatic analyses of vertebrate genomes proposed that the AAA codons are not favored evolutionary, and previously thought silent mutations may actually alter protein expression. The AAA sequence was thought to not be favored, being that the chance of lysines encoded by such a sequence was much lower than the chance of being encoded by AAG codons. The rejection of the silent mutation inference to instead be of greater importance, stemmed from mutating AAG codons to AAA codons and finding a decrease in protein expression. The opposite result was found from mutating AAA codons to AAG codons.
It is particularly interesting how failing to discover one tiny aspect of the translation process could later result in finding reasons behind translation failure. This may suggest that silent mutations are even more rare than previously thought, and that perhaps these mutations are simply misunderstood rather than inactive in many processes.

Genetic Makeup May Help Explain Methadone Overdoses

In this article it is explained how research was performed to connect ties with genetic variations to the body's ability of metabolizing methadone. First, Methadone is a drug, when taken reduces the effect of heroin or other drugs when taken. Basically it is an opiate blocker. The problem with methadone however is that it can serve to be very dangerous if it stays in the body for a certain period of time. Dr. Evan Kharasch mentioned that some people have high amounts of this drug in their blood which can lead to an overdose. Everyone's body is different and so people metabolize methadone differently.

If genetic testing is applied before these patients receive methadone it can perhaps save the lives of many who are deceased each year because of overdose. The study performed consisted of taking blood samples from healthy individuals to determine their genetic makeup, and then gave them methadone to see how quickly it could clear from the body. The results indicated that the liver played a major role in terms of the time period of methadone staying in the body. Researchers determined that Blacks had higher methadone levels in the blood even though they were given the same dose and the odd were higher of them having the gene variant linked to slower methadone metabolism. This clearly supports the fact that everyone is different in how they metabolize methadone. One other interesting point brought up was that the researchers discovered that liquid or pill forms of methadone were more likely to have an affect on metabolism than having methadone injected into the vein. This was very intriguing because the majority of primary care physicians will prescribe this drug in the pill form than injecting it through the vein.

http://health.usnews.com/health-news/articles/2015/10/27/genetic-makeup-may-help-explain-methadone-overdoses

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4149396/

Exercise Might Possibly Slow the Aging Process

Recent Studies by the University of Mississippi and the University of California suggest that exercising may slow the aging process. As a cell ages (divides), its telomeres naturally shorten and fray.  The process of aging can actually be sped up by health related issues like diabetes, smoking, and obesity.  The more one does not take care of himself/herself, the faster he/she will age.  Smoking, for example, can cause premature aging (this is due to the shortening of telomeres!).  

Studies by the University of California and the University of Mississippi suggest that exercise frequency is linked to telomere length.  In the studies, men and women of different ages were asked questions pertaining to the frequency of excersice they added to their daily routines as well as blood samples taken to measure telomere length.  In individuals who did not partake in exercise regularly or rarely exercised, telomere length was shorter than those individuals that exercised regularly.

This is very interesting because exercise is a key part of any person's life in order to keep a healthy body and mind.  This study is basically suggesting that exercise will keep one healthier longer, but will also slow the process of aging.  For those worried about wrinkles, make sure you exercise!  

To read the article written on this study by the New York Times click hereTo read more click here, and here

700-year-old Reindeer Poop Brings About Regeneration of Ancient Viruses

Ancient, cryogenically-preserved virus remnants were discovered in 700-year-old caribou feces found in an ice patch in the Yukon and Northern Territories in Canada. The low-density virus remnants were found to be degraded, but, through a study led by the University of California, San Francisco, the virus is being "resurrected" by a procedure known as "viral particle associated nucleic acid enrichment". Through their study, the research team was able to recreate a full coding of DNA sequence and and a partial RNA sequence. Furthermore, the team displayed the viruses' ability to reproduce when injected into a living plant. The regenerated viruses gave the team major evidence as to how modern viruses evolved from their viral ancestors. The newest question that critics have risen is whether global warming will bring about the emergence of ancient viruses that were cryogenically preserved for decades. Although the re-warming of other ancient virus DNA is a possibility, it is highly unlikely that any of the viruses would not be degraded enough to infect living species prior to genetic manipulation.

I think it is amazing how far science has advanced. Because of genetics, we are able to "resurrect" ancient viruses and learn more about the evolution of viral species. It is a bit of a scary concept to imagine ancient viruses returning to the current ecosystem. The ability of the virus to infect the plant also raises the question of whether the reindeer actually was infected from eating the plant, meaning that the virus could have been in a symbiotic relationship. Hopefully this type of genetics is well-maintained, controlled, and isolated to keep the public safe from possible unknown harms.

Genetic Counselors Worry Over 23andMe

The relatively new personal genetics research company 23andMe has recently been in the news, because, after a long battle with the FDA, they have finally regained the right to use service their product to its fullest potential. That is, being able to provide personal genetic insight to its patrons. The product sells itself as an easy way to learn all about "what your genes have to say about you", which is quite possibly dangerous if taken to be an accurate diagnose. Even with the small print on their website saying that they are legally not allowed to give out medical advice, and as a result they are not allowed to use them to diagnose any diseases one could possibly have or give to their offspring.

After a study performed by David Kohller, a genetic counselor at the University of Michigan, reported a survey among buyers of 23andMe, and reported that only 4% of the customers had seen a professional genetic counselor (who are allowed to give medical advice) and only 40% of the buyers would see one if they thought it was pertinent to their health. This leaves genetic counselors worried that with the legalization of 23andMe's full service on board again, it will lead to a new era in which their is a rapid decline of genetic health knowledge, specifically, of one's own health.

With 23andMe giving out facts about a customer's genome ranging from simple novelties such as "do you sneeze when you look at the sun" to more important matters such as "likelihood to get breast cancer", and with all the information cheap and readily available, it looks as though it might not bode well for genetic counselors. Furthermore, their is always the possibility of a fatal mis"diagnosis". Personally, I am glad that the site got everything straightened out with FDA regulations, but perhaps they need to make it a bit more obvious that they aren't there to diagnose people, instead of advertising themselves as a company who sell you the ability to "understand what your DNA says about your health".

Immune Cells Use DNA Netting as Line of Defense Against Invaders

Normally, immune cells called neutrophils attack microbes (invaders) by releasing toxic chemicals and/or by "eating" (gobbling up) the microbes.  Sometimes, these mechanisms do not work to stop invaders from entering, so the next attack mechanism the immune cells use is spitting out a netting of DNA containing antimicrobial components to trap the invaders. DNA is very compact and coiled tightly.  When it is uncoiled, it becomes a big sticky net, which is a very good defense.  The netting can wrap itself around small blood vessels, allowing the immune cell to grip and kill the bacteria.  The netting itself is very useful in the blood stream because without this mechanism the immune cells would not be able to catch bacteria.  The use of DNA netting in the blood stream entangles the bacteria and they are killed.

This recently discovered mechanism of defense against invading microbial cells has been seen in the human body, specifically in the lungs of patients with Aspergillus fungal infections.  This fungi appears in the lungs of patients with weakened immune systems and/or lungs.   Neutrophils are not large enough to gobble up this fungi successfully, but the use of DNA netting delivers concentrated doses of toxins to destroy the fungi.  The downside to this mechanism of immune cells spewing out DNA netting to entrap microbe invaders, is that it can entrap cancer cells in the blood stream, spreading and implanting the cancer cells into nearby tissues.

Aspergillus fungi has been recently researched in mice. It has been observed that one strain of the Aspergillus repels the netting of the neutrophil DNA.  The rejection of the netting is due to a sugary coating on this particular strain of fungi.

Many people think DNA has one usage; to be a carrier of hereditary genes and sequencing.  This article articulates that DNA has a very important job in the body as a defense mechanism in immune cells.  This defense has a consequence of implanting cancer cells into tissue, but I think the good out-weighs the bad.  Also, in the fungal strain of Aspergillus that repels against the interaction of the DNA netting, it is possible that drugs can be developed in order to break down the sugary coat the blocks the interaction.  DNA in immune cells are essential to humans and helps minimize disease and attacks in the immune system.

Detroit Zoo Saves Cash by Breeding Own Crickets

Crickets contains many of the important dietary needs for amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. They are an excellent source of protein for them and as much as they probably taste so good---they are expensive! According to the article crickets cost more than all the other food sources at the zoo, including meat, fish and produce, at more than 98,000 per year.

Officials have created a new program that will make it easier and cheaper to feed their thousands of amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals and that is by simply breeding crickets. The workers at the Detroit Zoo changed an unused area into breeding room to produce crickets. 

Since this new program has been created, hundred-thousand of crickets have been produced every week. Scott Carter, the Detroit Zoo's chief life science officer, said that this will save about $225,000 in the first three years.

"In my opinion, this is a little surprising that someone did not think of this a lot sooner. Your saving less than half a million dollars by just breeding crickets. I would have came up with solution a long time ago. From what I am aware of, breeding, specifically, selective breeding, has been going since Mendel started breeding pea plants. Or it may have been used before Mendel. But my point is, is that since the officials did not think of this solution a lot sooner, they ended up spending a lot of money that could have went towards something else. It makes me think if there are other places that are doing the same thing and should be taught this technique."

Here is the link for the ARTICLE!

Look here to watch the video too!

It's Easy to Be Fearless When You Have a Good Shell

Johan Ahlgren, a researcher at Lund University in Sweden, created a personality test using snails. He would gather a bunch of baby snails from different ponds and raise them until their adulthood. He gently prodded the snails' shells with tweezer to scare them and monitered how long it took for the snail to come back out of its shell. The results that came back was that bold snails came from under their shell in less than 10 seconds and shy shells came from under their shell in more than 15 seconds. He was interested in the trait "boldness" and found out that bold snails also tend to have rounder shells with wider openings and shy snails tend to have elongated shells with narrower openings. 

Could the shape of the snail's shell be related to the environment it grows up in? The snails used in Ahlgren's experiment were used in a lab, so it is assumed that the trait "boldness" could possibly be genetic. The scientists in the article defined this as "the ghost of predation past" because the predator on that snail has left its mark on the snail's DNA. So, those snails who inherit the "shy" trait cannot help but stay inside their shell for a long period of time because it is naturally within them. 

"Wow! I never would have thought a snail's shell had anything to do with their boldness. What if a shell that is bold turns shy because something tragic happens? Would their offspring inherit their shy trait or bold trait? I also wonder if the weight of a snails' shell has anything to do with how slow a snail moves. Or maybe snails are just slow in general and there is no snail that is quicker than the other. That is another topic to discuss, but this article really intrigues me."   

Click Here for more of the article!

New Genes in Sardinia

Recently, Sardinia became apart of the genomic world map for it's newest discoveries of genes and mutations. The SardiNIA project, led by Francesco Cucca, Goncçalo Abecasis, David Schlessinger and John Novembre, found over 17 million new genes after studying the genomes of 2,120 Sardinians. Twenty two percent of these genes were not found anywhere else, and 76,000 of the genes were rare in these populations. The SardiNIA project took much time to analyze these genes for future application.

Map of Sardinia

Some of the specific data found include variants of circulating lipid levels and five inflamatory biomarker, which correspond to two new loci each, They also found the HBB mutation, which is associated with reduced cholesterol levels, the APOA5 missennce variant, which reduces the body's triglyceride levels, a nonsense mutation in GHR, a gene involved with with Laron syndrome, and a mutation involved with KCNQ1. These mutations did not even exist in the 1,000 genomes project. The SardiNIA project even studied the effect of genetic drift on small islands, and concluded that organisms reduce in size once they separate to other islands. In due time, the SardiNIA project will find more data, and promote further research on this new island.




Original Article

Second Article

Genetic Blindness

A gene for a disease that blinds men who have a defective form of the gene by age 30 has been discovered. This condition is a severe form of retinitis pigmentosa.  This gene accounts for about 10 to 20 percent of all known cases. RP3 has been diagnosed name or term used to label the condition. 

 RP3 is on the X chromosome.  This causes its strongest effect to reside in men.

There are also known mutations in this RP3.  This mutation causes 70 percent of the severe cases. With a defeat in one of there genes, younger meant have difficulty with their vision late at night. This may also cause them to have tunnel vision. Unfortunately right now there is no known cure for this condition causing the meant to become blind before middle age.
"Scientists have known the gene's approximate location since the early 1980's, but it's been very elusive, Dr. Sieving said."

Fat Burner

Always and forever it will be a change, to loose weight. Woman and men always have complex with themselves over having to loose weight. Scientist have discover a gene that someday will be the answer to everyones prayers. Now we know that this is a far stretch but there is belief that this will help shed pounds off! There is one catch though, like usual!! Scientist are saying that too loose this large amount of weird, you will need to increase your body temperature. NOW what does that exactly mean? I will inform you, The gene seems to make people burn off the calories. There is a drug that is being tested to make it work "harder" as in more efficient. This is so the body burns more calories instead of storing them, and turning them into our lovely love handles because of the  increase of our body temperature. There is talk about this new found gene giving a rise to protiens that can borrow the energy that cells generate.  If the cells were to make more of these proteins, then in turn the cells will have to burn more calories as well to make up for the loss, hence the raise in body temperature. UCP2 is the new found gene, it works in all human tissues, especially in fat and muscle. This new protein is a succsefull change to the weight loss generation! 

Maze Vaccination

http://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/05/science/gene-altered-vaccine-for-corn-is-tested.html

Plant Vaccination has become a scientific revolution.  Scientists have injected 2,200 corn stalks with a microbe effective against the destructive European corn borer. This was the   first approved outdoor testing done. Being said , there no was no environmental group that opposed the testing. The tests of the microbe, was on corn planted in the Eastern Shore of Maryland. This land is  owned by p Genetics International. This was the company that originated the organism. Although being the first, corn is not the last to be genetically engineers. Frostban, a frost- inhibiting microbe was also approved to be filed tested. This testing has become a phenomenon for many researchers. Is it too much to say that it could help world hunger? Plant vaccination is just the beginning of a rush of hundreds of similar products. Corn borer which is a moth larva was introduced to the U.S in 1908. This moth is also one of agricultures largest threats. A sum of 400 million dollars a year, is the coast to keep this distractive insect away from the crops. With this new genetically modified testing, scientist have been able to determine and monitor if the living pesticide could spread from plant to plant. Spreading is the most undesirable affect for the crops. This new microbe has been genetically altered, causing it to attack the alkaline stomach of each corn borer. Thus, creating users in the lining of there stomachs, without affecting the human consumers. Unfortunately the pesticide has not show much improvement to work in greenhouses and has lowered the corn yield among some test. There is a constant progression with trial and error. This pesticide will change food consumption for years to come, corn will be the sweetest tasting vegetable all year round. 

Cells borrowed and taken.

At Leiden University Medical Center, a team of pathologist carried out an experiment for procreating woman and those who have procreated and died. They ran an experiment by collecting tissue from 26 women who had died during or just after pregnancy. Each of the 26 woman carried sons. The scientists were looking for male cells in female bodies. The researchers found cells with Y chromosomes in every tissue sample they examined. These male cells were strangely uncommon. At most they only made up about one in every 1,000 cells. Significantly the male cells were present in every organ that the scientists had studied. The scientist studied brains, hearts, kidneys and etc. In the 1990s, scientists found that cells from both sons and daughters were exposed from the uterus and spread through a mother’s body. The new study suggests that women almost always acquire fetal cells each time they are pregnant. They have been detected as early as seven weeks into a pregnancy.

In later years, the cells may disappear, but sometimes, the cells settle in for a lifetime. They called the phenomenon fetal microchimerism. This specific name was named after the chimera. The Chimera is a monster from Greek mythology that was part lion, goat and dragon.

In recent years, researchers have found many clues suggesting that microchimerism can affect a woman’s health. Tumors may be jam packed with fetal cells. This suggested that they might help drive cancer. Yet other studies have suggested that fetal microchimerism protects women against the disease. “In each instance of a disease, it seems like there is this paradox,” said Amy M. Boddy, a postdoctoral fellow at Arizona State University.

Fetal microchimerism has been found in a number of mammal species. The species were dogs, mice and cows. It’s likely that fetal cells have been a part of maternal life for tens of millions of years. It is even suggested that fetal cells may produce chemicals that influence the mother’s biology. This would allow the fetuses to manipulate her from within. Some cells may help maintain the health of the mother by healing her wounds. Fetal cells are frequently found in breast tissue, even in milk.

Mothers also nurture their babies with body heat. The thyroid gland, located in the neck, acts like a thermostat. The fetal cells in the thyroid gland, in theory could cause mothers to generate more heat then otherwise done before. This biological tension might help explain how fetal microchimerism sometimes causes harm to a mother. It may simply be an occasional side effect of the cells’ manipulations.

Trial Starts for New Huntington's Drug

Landmark Huntington's Trial Starts



"The first drug that can potentially correct the underlying defect that causes Huntington's disease has been taken by patients in a clinical trial. The disease is caused by the brain producing a mutant protein called huntingtin which damages and ultimately kills off brain cells. As Huntington's progresses it leads to uncontrolled movements, behavior changes and poor cognition. Life expectancy after diagnosis can be as short as 10 years."

The drug used in the clinical trial is known as a gene silencer. It works by targeting mRNA (messenger RNA) strands which contain the instructions for the mutated protein. The drug was manufactured to bind to the mRNA and neutralize it. The drug will be administered via injections into the spinal cord over the course of four months and then the patients will be observed for an additional three months.

This is an amazing step forward in the field of medicine. Not only is Huntington's incurable to date, but the medications for it only treat the symptoms while doing nothing to slow the damage. The article goes on to discuss the safety precautions the clinicians are taking while administering the drug. Hopefully, the results for the human trials are as promising as the pre-clinical work.

A Genetically Modified Yeast Turns Sugars into Painkillers

Researchers at Stanford University have modified yeast to produce opiate painkillers from sugars.  Normally, opiates are created from a plant, the opium poppy, and take a year to be fully converted from farm to pharmacy.  Using plants to produce medicine is very common, however plants’ main purpose is not to produce these medicines, so it is not an efficient process most times.  By using yeast, these researchers believe they will be able to produce opiates with more efficiency.  Similarly, a team at the University of California Berkeley used yeast to produce the building block of morphine.  

The researchers at Stanford first had to genetically re-create enzymes so the yeast would create thebaine, not the amino acid tyrosine as they normally do.  Thebaine is the precursor to hydrocodone, or more commonly known as Vicodin.  The genes needed to convert hydrocodone into Vicodin were inserted into the yeast from plants, rats, and bacteria.  At this point, the yeast are not very efficient, producing 1 dose of opiates per 4,400 gallons of yeast, but the researchers believe there is room for great improvement and have already taken steps toward new experiments.  

I think this is a huge medical advancement.  Considering the opium poppy is only grown in select areas of the world, it seems that development of opiates is limited.  Relying on plants for medicine means pest infestations, drought, and climate change can affect our ability to produce important medications.  Along with not having to deal with these issues, the benefits to using yeast are lowering the cost of production of opiates, and making them more available to those who need them.  The largest controversy this research brings up is if yeast can be used to produce opiates, maybe down the road they can be “home-brewed” by those who do not need the medication.  However, this is unlikely because the genes needed to modify the yeast would be difficult to acquire. It seems the benefits these yeast provide may change modern medicine.  

Original Article

Genes Identified Could Help Restore Hearing

A majority of the time, hearing loss occurs due to damage to hair cells or auditory nerve cells located in the inner ear. The hair cells are named due to their hair-like extensions, and they are formally called stereocilia. These cells convert vibrations into electrical signals and the auditory nerve carries them to the brain, producing sound. Stereocilia can be damaged through various means such as aging, medication, trauma, or loud noises. These hair cells grow during fetal development, but this growth stops after birth, which also prevents regeneration later on.

A new study has identified two genes that are responsible for the growth of these hairs. Dr. Ksenia Gnedeva observed the gene expression in an inner ear structure called the utricle. The utricle is lined with these hair cells, as is the cochlea. Gnedeva identified the Sox4 and Sox11 transcription factors. They are highly active during development, but they become dormant after birth. The study was done with mice. The mice that were developing had their genes turned off to observe the results. The inner ear as a whole did not develop normally. The mice that were already developed had their genes switched on and were able to regenerate the stereocilia. 

The overall goal of this study is to turn these genes back on in animals to allow them to regenerate their hair cells in the inner ear. If this is successful, it could potentially mean that humans who suffer from hearing loss could regain it eventually. One issue with this therapy could be if the hearing loss is caused by auditory nerve cell damage. This would only help people affected with hair cell damage. If there is a mix of the two, it is possible for the person to regain some of their hearing but not all. There is still work to be done before use as a therapy for hearing loss. 

Gene Therapy Treatment for Muscular Dystrophy Effective in Dogs

Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a muscular disorder caused by a recessive mutation in dystrophin gene on the X chromosome that disrupts the production of the dystrophin protein. The disorder begins in the lower extremities and causes damaged muscle to be replaced with fibrous, fatty, or bony tissue. This leads to loss of muscle function and weakening of the muscles, while eventually causing a premature death. While being very prominent, as it affect 1 in 3500 males worldwide, scientists have searched for a way to successfully treat the dreadful disorder. 

The problem researchers have had with using gene therapy to repair the mutated dystrophin gene is that the gene is one of the largest in the human genome. However, after more then ten years of research, researchers at the University of Missouri (MU) School of Medicine have finally found a method of gene therapy that has successfully cured dogs with DMD and is now ready for human clinical trials.  Through previous research, the researchers at the MU School of Medicine have developed a miniature version of the dystrophin gene, called a microgene, which they can inject into an organism via a adeno-associated virus. In their testing, dogs were injected with the virus and the virus allowed for microgene to be delivered to all the muscles in the body of the diseased dog, effectively curing the dog of the disease. The dogs were injected with the virus when they were two to three months old and began showing signs of DMD, and are now six to seven months old and are developing normally. Since dogs inherit DMD naturally in a similar manner as humans this finding can be used to possibly cure the disease in human's. Based on how the dogs continue to develop the use of this gene therapy may be ready for human trial in a few years and can effectively lead to curing this disease. 

Overall, I find this article to be fascinating. It highlights the idea that genetics studies can be used for gene therapy and curing diseases. I think its amazing how we can combine so many aspects of genetics and biology and use it to cure diseases that have killed millions of people. 

For a link to the original article click here
For more information on muscular dystrophy click here
For another article on the study directly from the MU website click here

Drug Could Kill Harmful Bacteria But Leave Benign Ones Untouched

According to the New Scientist researchers have been working on a way of making a class of bacteria-destroying viruses more useful. This meaning that they would be able to use this phage virus to kill disease-causing bacteria while still leaving the “good” bacteria unharmed. Timothy Lu and his colleagues are conducting the research at MIT. The phage virus is thought to be a possible alternative to antibiotics.

“Most phages infect only one species or even a few strains within a species; antibiotics aren’t so selective.” This however is an issue because it is not easy to determine what bacterial strain is present in an infection. Therefore, it would be necessary to have a mix of many phages to have an effective treatment. The phage created by the researches at MIT normally kills E. coli, however by switching in a different tail, researchers made the phage capable of killing at least 99 per cent of either Yersinia or Klebsiella bacteria. 

This research I find to be very interesting. However, it still has a long way to go in my opinion. It seems to have many benefits but also some downfalls that still need to be worked out.

Dr. George Church of Harvard Medical School dropped a bombshell in the middle of his presentation. In a typical experiment scientists use Crispr to alter a single gene. Church and his colleagues used Crispr to alter 62 genes at once in pig cells. They hope this will lead to using pig organs for human transplants. This also raises the question is this experiment could be used to altered multiple human genes at once. In 1990s researchers explored the possibility of using pig organs for human transplant. There is a major risk with pigs DNA called porcine version also known as PERV can affect human cells as well. In 2013 they asked Dr. Church to discover a way to edit the genes of PERV. He agreed to give it a shot even though he thought it wouldn’t work. Dr. Chruch had failed several times only killing the cells.  In the last experiment Dr. Church and colleagues found that there were 62 PERVs in the genome. The DNA was nearly identical from virus to virus. Chruch engineered a new set of genes and inserted them into pigs cell. Two weeks went by and the modified pig cells had altered all of their own viral DNA. Chromosomes showed no abnormalities and the cells grew normally. This could be the answer to endless supply of safe dependable pig organs for transplant.  

       This finding could save thousands of lives! We wouldn't have to wait for someones life to be cut short to save another one. There's always a down side to new findings. This is the first time scientist were able to change multiple genes at once. This could be another huge step to creating designer babies. 

My Genome, Myself: Seeking clues in DNA

The study of the human genome for years has been done by the "elite" scientist in large research lab. This is soon to change because an infant industry is taking advantage of the plummeting cost of genetic testing technology and offering anyone an "inside look" of their own DNA.
With only $1000 and a saliva sample, the customer is able to learn how the billions of bits of their biological code shape who and what they are. About three companies have already announced that they plan to provide the services.
There is some controversy with this service though. Some say that it is beneficial because it explains why people do things. For example, a woman had a pain in her hand, she checked her DNA and realized that she had inherited arthritis. Others completely disagree and say people could become hypochondriacs and constantly believe something is wrong with them.
I personally believe that this testing would greatly benefit the study of the human genome because with more people uncovering their DNA, the more information the scientist who study have.



Original Article

What Extroverts and Introverts Can Learn from Snails

Researchers at the Lund University in Sweden are taking a closer look into the personalities of snails.  In most species, it can be seen that some individuals act more bold and aggressive, while others seem to be more shy, and this is no different in snails.  To test the snails’ personalities, lead researcher Johan Ahlgren would tap the snails’ shells until they hid inside.  Those snails who would reemerge in ten seconds and under were classified as bold while those who took over fifteen seconds to reemerged were classified as shy.  

The interesting part of this study looks into shell thickness.  The bold snails always had thicker shells than the shy snails.  The thick-shelled snails, can be more behavior this way because of the extra protection their shells offer them.  Meanwhile, the thin-shelled snails have to be more cautious of predators, and other dangerous situations, because they are less protected.

This is where genetics plays a huge role.  The thickness of a snail’s shell is an observable characteristic, a phenotype, which means it has corresponding genes that code for it.  These snails inherited their shell thickness genes from their parents, which produced the phenotype of either thick or thin shells.  The most amazing part of this is that these genes affected the snails personalities and level of cautiousness.  

I find this to be extremely interesting because this gives insight into the age old question of nature versus nurture.  This is a debate of whether genes or environment make a person who they are, and it has been debated for hundreds of years.  This experiment definitely does not end the debate, but it shows a great case for the nature side.  These snails were all taken from the same pond, and were fed the same diet, which according to the nurture theory would make them all equal, but this clearly was not the case.  The genes these snails had for shell thickness affected their personalities, showing genetics goes deeper than just physical traits.

Original Article

For more information on the genetics of introverts and extroverts click here.

Spay, Neuter, or Shot? How an Injection could be the Future of Animal Control

     A new way of animal control different from spaying and neutering; injection. But do not be fooled, for this injection is not like normal contraceptive shots. Through the works of Bruce Hay and Juan Li of the California Institute of Technology, they injected mice with foreign DNA so as they would produce antibodies that would attack reproductive hormones. The shot is administered into the muscles of the mice, which after two months resulted in infertile mice. 

     The main hormone that is targeted is gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). GnRH is produced in the brain and acts upon the pituitary glans to promote secretions to stimulate egg and sperm development. Juan Li, the first author, took the anti-GnRH gene and packaged it inside the shell of an aden-associated virus. This virus commonly infects mammals, but does not cause any symptoms. The manipulated virus is then injected into the muscles of the mice where the DNA is “unpackaged” and then used to create antibody factories. The benefit of injecting into the muscles is that muscle cells do not turn over. Therefore, the production of the wanted antibody will continue for years at a time as opposed to monthly injections like other birth control shot methods. 

     In addition to the injection, Hay and his lab blocked fertility in female mice using another antibody that binds to the protein layer called the zone pellucida, which surrounds the egg cells. This blocks the sperm from binding to the egg cells all the while not affecting the female hormonal cycle. 

     The importance of this process is that it saves time and money. Spaying and neutering feral animals includes the capture of the animal, anesthetizing the animal, performing the surgery on the animal, and then the time for them to recover. 

The next question that comes along with this is can this be a new, permanent form of contraception for humans? The answer is not quite yet. As Hay puts it, “It’s a long road to develop any new drugs, but it might someday provide an alternative to current, surgical methods of permanent contraception.” 

     In the meantime this method is being tested with female feral cats in collaboration with Bill Swanson, Director of animal Research at the Cincinnati Zoo’s Center for Conservation and Research of Endangered Wildlife.

    Personally, I feel that this would be a very effective way to population control in the animals that need it. In New Jersey (especially South Jersey), there is an awful deer population issue as well as an awful feral cat issue. Although hunting is a way to control deer, the cats keep reproducing even with the efforts of spaying and neutering the wild ones that can be captured. It amazes me how far genetic work has come to where scientists are able to take a virus and manipulate it then inject a gene that they want to be expressed into an animal. Also, the fact that this method could one day be used for humans is remarkable seeing as there would be no costly surgery involved.

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